Evidence for Anthropogenic deforestation in W europe during the Neolithic

http://antiquity.ac.uk/Ant/078/0886/Ant0780886.pdf#search=%
22Neolithic%20Arboreal%22


http://www.fettes.com/orkney/holocene%20vegetation.htm


http://www.ria.ie/publications/journals/ProcBI/2001/PB101I1-
2/PDF/101B1209.pdf#search=%22Neolithic%20Arboreal%22


http://www.le.ac.uk/archaeology/research/projects/eastmidsfw/pdfs/e
midnba.pdf#search=%22Neolithic%20Arboreal%22


According to my theory, which Uwe disagrees with that anthropogenic
disturbances in the post glacial slowly recovering Pinus species
are both notable and result in decline in all species.
The premise to the argument is that these species invade slowly and
at the pace of nutrient accumulations and soil preparation.

The conclusion I made is based on 2 key factors.
1. That removal of biomass is accompanied by above soil fixed
nutrient removal (organic biomass and phototrophic associated
materials in the canopy)

2. That burning liberates also biomass but retains some
micronutrients at the surface, that are either consumed and
redeposited (grazing animals) or harvested and removed


http://www.umr5059.univ-montp2.fr/~umr5059/pdf/carcaillet/26_Ali%
20et%20al%20JFB.pdf

"
Results Supported by 40 14C datings, the fragments show that, over
2000 m a.s.l.,
P. cembra accounts for around 40% (mean value) of identified
fragments. Data
reveal that arolla pine once extended between 260 and 375 m above
the presentday
local tree lines. It was established in the southern and the
northern French
Alps from at least c. 9000 and 6000 cal yr bp, respectively.
Main conclusions While present-day populations of P. cembra are
very
fragmented in the inner French Alps, charcoal records indicate
large past
occurrences of this tree since the early Holocene. Human
disturbance since the
Neolithic seems to be the main reason for the regression of the
arolla pine
woodlands. On the south-facing slopes of the study sites, currently
deforested,
this species extended up to 2800 m a.s.l. In the northern areas,
charcoal records of
the P. cembra expansion are consistent with the regional pollen
archives, but in
the southern massifs charcoal records indicate its presence c. 2600
years earlier
than other palaeobotanical studies suggest. This discrepancy
highlights the
necessity to crosscheck data using several different proxies in
order to assess the
validity of conclusions regarding tree development in space and
time.
"
http://www.umr5059.univ-montp2.fr/~umr5059/pdf/carcaillet/26_Ali%
20et%20al%20JFB.pdf
http://www.umr5059.univ-montp2.fr/~umr5059/pdf/carcaillet/26_Ali%
20et%20al%20JFB.pdf
"
RESULTS
Figure 2 displays the charcoal masses of P. cembra (%) found
within the various charcoal assemblages (169 in total), with
increasing altitude. Pinus cembra accounts for between 0% and
100% of the identified fragments, indicating a possible patchy
distribution of woodlands in space and time between 1700 and
2775 m a.s.l. Mean values of 38% (Fig. 2a) and 42% (Fig. 2b)
were obtained for the southern (Queyras region and upper
Ubaye Valley) and the northern (Maurienne Valley) areas,
respectively. The other fragments belonged to taxa such as
Abies alba Mill. (silver fir) Pinus sectio sylvestris, L. decidua,
P. abies, Acer opalus Mill. (opalus maple), Acer pseudoplatanus
L. (sycamore), Alnus cf. incana (L.) Moench. (grey alder), and
Betula sp. (birch) (Carcaillet, 1996; Talon, 1997; Ali et al.,
2005). Most of these taxa were found only at elevations lower
than 2000 m a.s.l.

Chronological changes in the proportion of charcoal
fragments in the detrital layers of the travertine sequences
show that P. cembra woodlands have declined through time
in the Queyras area (Fig. 3). Before 7000 cal yr bp, this
species accounts for between 80% and 100% of the
charcoal mass recovered above 2000 m a.s.l. in this region,
suggesting that it was probably a dominant tree at the
beginning of the Holocene. From 4000 cal yr bp, however,
its abundance appears to have decreased, until, by around
1700 cal yr bp, it accounts for only 7% of the charcoal
(Fig. 3).

All radiocarbon dates measured for wood charcoal fragments
of P. cembra are shown in Table 1. The results reveal
that P. cembra was present in the French inner Alps during the
Holocene between 1700 and 2775 m a.s.l. In the southern
region, the dates reveal that the establishment of P. cembra had
occurred by 9090 -9330 cal yr bp at the latest (Fig. 4a). Despite
the number of datings performed (n ¼ 23), we did not obtain
any data for the period between 6000 yr bp and 5000 cal yr bp.
dates are concentrated during the mid-Holocene, suggesting
that P. cembra woodlands burned principally between c. 6000
and 3000 years ago (Fig. 4b).
"
http://www.umr5059.univ-montp2.fr/~umr5059/pdf/carcaillet/26_Ali%
20et%20al%20JFB.pdf

So these are elevations above the neolithic sites showing
patterns of burn based declines. This would indicate neolithic
intrusions into the region, possibly clearings for summer grazing
lands close to downstream settlements. This solves one problem
of grazing and cropland, separating the grazers from the crops
while the crops are growing.

http://www.umr5059.univ-montp2.fr/~umr5059/pdf/carcaillet/26_Ali%
20et%20al%20JFB.pdf
"
This
comparison thus reveals a discrepancy, since some of the
charcoal fragments of P. cembra dated in Queyras travertine
are 2600 years older than the earliest pollen records. It is
surprising that P. cembra, which was seemingly present during
the Allero¨d in the study areas, should be so minor a
component of the vegetation until 6400 yr bp as to be invisible
in the pollen records.
"
http://www.umr5059.univ-montp2.fr/~umr5059/pdf/carcaillet/26_Ali%
20et%20al%20JFB.pdf

A call for caution regarding the pollen record. Biomass and
nutrients are important. Depleted soils can produce trees but it
requires excess of nitrogen and phosphorus to produce pollen
Some pollen is adequate in undensely vegetated areas to expand, but
limits crosspolination between adjacent tree strands.

http://www.umr5059.univ-montp2.fr/~umr5059/pdf/carcaillet/26_Ali%
20et%20al%20JFB.pdf
"
In the Maurienne Valley, arolla pine has been present in the
vegetation since at least c. 6000 cal yr bp, while the pollen
studies indicate that it has been established in the regional
vegetation since at least c. 9500 cal yr bp (Wegmu¨ller, 1977;
David, 1995). At this stage of research, no fire events have been
recorded before 6000 cal yr bp in the northern French Alps
(Carcaillet, 1998). Consequently, the apparent chronological
discrepancy between the pollen and charcoal records concerning
the establishment of P. cembra in the Maurienne Valley
could be a result of the lack of detected fire events.
"
http://www.umr5059.univ-montp2.fr/~umr5059/pdf/carcaillet/26_Ali%
20et%20al%20JFB.pdf

Increased number of fire events after 6000 cal yr bp.

http://www.umr5059.univ-montp2.fr/~umr5059/pdf/carcaillet/26_Ali%
20et%20al%20JFB.pdf
"
Today, in the inner French Alps, P. cembra is present in
fragmented populations, mostly on the north-facing slopes of
valleys and massifs (Contini & Lavarello, 1982; Rameau et al.,
1993; Chas, 1994). In some valleys, such as the Aigue Agnelle
and the upper Ubaye and in the Saint-Michel-de-Maurienne
locality, P. cembra is absent. Our results reveal that this tree
was a common tree at high elevations in all investigated sites
during the mid-Holocene. Indeed, the soil and travertine
charcoal show that it grew at higher elevations than it does
today. The elevational decline of this species was c. 375 m in
the Queyras area and upper Ubaye Valley, and 260 m in the
upper Maurienne Valley. According to the radiocarbon datings
Today, in the inner French Alps, P. cembra is present in
fragmented populations, mostly on the north-facing slopes of
valleys and massifs (Contini & Lavarello, 1982; Rameau et al.,
1993; Chas, 1994). In some valleys, such as the Aigue Agnelle
and the upper Ubaye and in the Saint-Michel-de-Maurienne
locality, P. cembra is absent. Our results reveal that this tree
was a common tree at high elevations in all investigated sites
during the mid-Holocene. Indeed, the soil and travertine
charcoal show that it grew at higher elevations than it does
today. The elevational decline of this species was c. 375 m in
the Queyras area and upper Ubaye Valley, and 260 m in the
upper Maurienne Valley. According to the radiocarbon datings
have occurred between 4000 yr bp and 2000 cal yr bp.
It is important to note that in the French Alps no pollen
investigations have been carried out on sites located above
2400 m. Moreover, studies have revealed unfavourable conditions
such that the temperature and soil characteristics are
limiting factors close to the tree line, and such conditions could
cause significant reductions in the pollen production of local
trees (Moe, 1998; Hicks, 2001). Consequently, there may be little
or no trace of trees growing between 2400 and 2800 ma.s.l. in the
pollen records. Carnelli et al. (2004) have published similar
findings from studies in the central Swiss Alps, also based on
charcoal from soils, indicating that during the Holocene
P. cembra colonized very high altitudes, up to 300 m above the
present local tree line. In reference to our previous studies
(Carcaillet et al., 1998; Talon et al., 1998; Carcaillet & Brun,
2000; Ali et al., 2005) and new results presented in this present
paper, we suggest that P. cembra may have formed a forested belt
between 1700 and 2400 m a.s.l. in the inner French Alps, along
with other woody species, for example P. uncinata, L. decidua,
B. pendula and B. pubescens. Isolated trees might have occurred
at altitudes of up to almost 2800 m a.s.l.
"
http://www.umr5059.univ-montp2.fr/~umr5059/pdf/carcaillet/26_Ali%
20et%20al%20JFB.pdf

This is sufficient to establish a foundation for the point.
While it may seem counterintuitive that nutrients can move uphill
over time. None the less they do. Erosion of upland rock faces
produce micronutrients and lupines and winged animals bring in
nutrients when they nest. Such that trees are scavengers of
nutrients need not be stated, nutrients are accumulated and stored
with their biomass, and as long as there is a continuoum of
moisture and sunlight, the biomass will persist.
Planned buring of the biomass by humans results in the movement
of elevated nutrients down stream, this ultimately makes growth
above the tree line more difficult than just temperature declines
at those elevations.
While downstream ecosystems will show insignificant changes or
biomass or even positive changes in biomass because of upstream
releases, the trend of leaching nutrients from higher to lower
elevations establishes a trend that eventually purges the lower
elevations of most of the biomass retained nutrients.

How does the process of elevating nutrients occur.
1. Glaciation can trap some nutrients it may create tilled soils
and deposit both till and carbon at locations allowing
opportunistic trees to invade (like juniper).

2. As the sea retreats during deglaciation deposits of
phosphorous rich clays can feed the growth of legumaceous plants
trapping carbon.

3. Offshore wind patterns blow carbon, leaf litter inland.
Animals nest in upland reservers. Sea birds that feed at sea seek
fly over inland sites scouting for more feeding grounds, migratory
birds cross highland regions. Pollen can be blown by strong coastal
winds inland where the air uplitfs leaving pollen deposits.

4. Humans are part of the process also, during the early holocene
they appear to move from western reserves eastward and from south
eastern reserves northeastward. (Europe). They fish in inlets and
in deeper waters bringing in sea mammals and fish. The fish can be
traded between upland groups (as is seen in ecuador) and this can
bring seabound nutrients up to 100 miles inland. Deep shallow
rivers, fyords can allow trading even farther upland.

5. Defecation, waste, steals can mobilized human and animal
nutrients further inland. Phosphorus is a key feature, while low
phosphate inhibits germination it as detrimental to growth, and
opportunistic deposits of phosphorus (for example the death or
killing of an animal over the root system or unirnation or
defecation) can allow seasonal germination and spread of plants.

6. Nesting animals such as birds may be attracted to upland trees
as a defense against snakes and predators, while feeding in lowland
areas, the progess of nutrients into the canopy is intense for some
species. Shore birds or lake birds can nest miles from the site of
feeding.

7. Seasonal grazing and hunting. Animals may feed in open upland
areas during the summer, and this may attract hunters, the kills
processed on site and meat transported leaving remains behind, also
hunters leaving nutrients behind.

It takes 1000s of years for phosphorus and other scarce
micronutrients to reaccumulate in the upland forest, the balance of
the equation is the trapping of nutrients into growing biomass.
Trees are thus advantaged by providing secure upland protective
habitats for birds, as birds bring essential micronutrients into
the canopy, but a bird pales in comparison to a large tree and
while trees are much more efficient users of micronutrients/mass
the size difference is overwhelming. Once equilibrated into a
equilibrium old growth forest the biomass undergoes redistribution,
dead growith tree roots etc create places were water accumulates,
and soaks up, eventually the level of biomass cannot increase in
the canopy or on the ground, resource retention is not optimal and
redistribution of herbivores, scavengers etc allow the increased
flow down stream, during heavy rain periods, episodic
decarbonization of the upland habitat, in a nondestructive manner
results in enrichement of soils in the lowland flood plains. Very
suitable for nonsustainable farming. As the papers above show the
conversion of upland nutrients by burning and grazing can make more
nutrients available downstream. This can result in the decline of
trees at the treeline, even as temperature warms.
Eventually this will impact tree species at lower elevations.
The effect is significant and can be couple with environmental
factors as part of the decline.
As mentioned earlier, poor an unsustainable practices even in
the short terms can result in the marked downstream flow of
nutrients. Stand alone cultivations sites are excessively prone.
Sites coupled with fishing or downland predation and waste
preservation upland can preserver micronutrients upstream.
We can argue mathematically that if the rate of micronutrient flow
down stream is greater than the rate of nutrient deposition
upstream by slow processes, then the effect of man on the ecosystem
is significant.
Even without intervention upstream an effect can be felt. The
loss of nutrient rich sources in the downstream regions could send
herbivores for longer periods to upland reserves to restore
nutrients. Omnivores may spend more time foraging for grubs or
other upland sources of energy, increased disturbance of the forest
floor, and increasing nipping of new pine buds. Birds that feed in
the lowlands and nest in upland trees can be affected, they bring
fewer nutrients up, etc.
It is not neccesary to see a decline that is immediately caused
by humans to note an effect, but simply that humans are present in
the local, that there is evidence of interferance and that
contrasting expectations of higher elevation growth, such growths
are subsiding, indicating a change in nutrient equilibirum across
the whole ecosystem that has its greatest visual impact on the most
marginal strands of trees.
These types of secondary and tertiary impacts are of common
notation in the scientific literature, from many parts of the
world. Altering one aspect of an ecosystem can change the long term
balance both counter to both gravity and proximity.
I think it is incorrect to look at one place or a handful
of studies from one area and declare there was no effect.


On a second issue, we also have to examine the genetics.
According to this there was once a potential link between the Ilse
and the Swiss ancestors, this is obviously before the Neolithic
because one can attribute infilling distinquishable from the these
elements in the Irish and Swiss populations. While I have not
played this issue much, a concise understanding of this issue
involves a probable NW to SE gene flow, with absolutely no evidence
in a direct line between the two.
One possible theory is that people living in the regions about
these neolithic settlements were flushed into highland regions
where farming was prevelant. This shifted both the culture and
habits of the peoples, it is likely they adapted pastoral practices
at in order to prevent population declines, thus alterning the
upland ecosystems in ways noted above.




--
Philip
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