definition of simultaneity and on the relativity of lenghts and times by a. einstein

§ 1. Definition of Simultaneity

Let us take a system of co-ordinates in which the equations of Newtonian
mechanics hold good. In order to render our presentation more precise and to
distinguish this system of co-ordinates verbally from others which will be
introduced hereafter, we call it the "stationary system."

If a material point is at rest relatively to this system of co-ordinates,
its position can be defined relatively thereto by the employment of rigid
standards of measurement and the methods of Euclidean geometry, and can be
expressed in Cartesian co-ordinates.

If we wish to describe the motion of a material point, we give the values of
its co-ordinates as functions of the time. Now we must bear carefully in
mind that a mathematical description of this kind has no physical meaning
unless we are quite clear as to what we understand by "time." We have to
take into account that all our judgments in which time plays a part are
always judgments of simultaneous events. If, for instance, I say, "That
train arrives here at 7 o'clock," I mean something like this: "The pointing
of the small hand of my watch to 7 and the arrival of the train are
simultaneous events.''

It might appear possible to overcome all the difficulties attending the
definition of "time'' by substituting "the position of the small hand of my
watch" for "time." And in fact such a definition is satisfactory when we are
concerned with defining a time exclusively for the place where the watch is
located; but it is no longer satisfactory when we have to connect in time
series of events occurring at different places, or--what comes to the same
thing--to evaluate the times of events occurring at places remote from the
watch.

We might, of course, content ourselves with time values determined by an
observer stationed together with the watch at the origin of the
co-ordinates, and coordinating the corresponding positions of the hands with
light signals, given out by every event to be timed, and reaching him
through empty space. But this co-ordination has the disadvantage that it is
not independent of the standpoint of the observer with the watch or clock,
as we know from experience. We arrive at a much more practical determination
along the following line of thought.

If at the point A of space there is a clock, an observer at A can determine
the time values of events in the immediate proximity of A by finding the
positions of the hands which are simultaneous with these events. If there is
at the point B of space another clock in all respects resembling the one at
A, it is possible for an observer at B to determine the time values of
events in the immediate neighborhood of B. But it is not possible without
further assumption to compare, in respect of time, an event at A with an
event at B. We have so far defined only an "A time" and a "B time." We have
not defined a common "time" for A and B, for the latter cannot be defined at
all unless we establish by definition that the "time" required by light to
travel from A to B equals the "time" it requires to travel from B to A. Let
a ray of light start at the "A time" tA from A towards B, let it at the "B
time" tB be reflected at B in the direction of A, and arrive again at A at
the "A time" t'A.

In accordance with definition the two clocks synchronize if

tB - tA = t'A - tB

We assume that this definition of synchronism is free from contradictions,
and possible for any number of points; and that the following relations are
universally valid:--

1. If the clock at B synchronizes with the clock at A, the clock at A
synchronizes with the clock at B.

2. If the clock at A synchronizes with the clock at B and also with the
clock at C, the clocks at B and C also synchronize with each other.

Thus with the help of certain imaginary physical experiments we have settled
what is to be understood by synchronous stationary clocks located at
different places, and have evidently obtained a definition of
"simultaneous," or "synchronous," and of "time." The "time" of an event is
that which is given simultaneously with the event by a stationary clock
located at the place of the event, this clock being synchronous, and indeed
synchronous for all time determinations, with a specified stationary clock.

In agreement with experience we further assume the quantity

2AB/(t'A - tA) = c

to be a universal constant--the velocity of light in empty space.

It is essential to have time defined by means of stationary clocks in the
stationary system, and the time now defined being appropriate to the
stationary system we call it "the time of the stationary system."


§ 2. On the Relativity of Lengths and Times

The following reflections are based on the principle of relativity and on
the principle of the constancy of the velocity of light. These two
principles we define as follows:

The laws by which the states of physical systems undergo change are not
affected, whether these changes of state be referred to the one or the other
of two systems of coordinates in uniform translatory motion.

Any ray of light moves in the "stationary" system of coordinates with the
determined velocity c, whether the ray be emitted by a stationary or by a
moving body. Hence

velocity = (light path)/(time interval)

where time interval is to be taken in the sense of the definition in §1.

Let there be given a stationary rigid rod; and let its length be l as
measured by a measuring-rod which is also stationary. We now imagine the
axis of the rod lying along the axis of x of the stationary system of
co-ordinates, and that a uniform motion of parallel translation with
velocity v along the axis of x in the direction of increasing x is then
imparted to the rod. We now inquire as to the length of the moving rod, and
imagine its length to be ascertained by the following two operations:

(a) The observer moves together with the given measuring-rod and the rod to
be measured, and measures the length of the rod directly by superposing the
measuring-rod, in just the same way as if all three were at rest.

(b) By means of stationary clocks set up in the stationary system and
synchronizing in accordance with §1, the observer ascertains at what points
of the stationary system the two ends of the rod to be measured are located
at a definite time. The distance between these two points, measured by the
measuring-rod already employed, which in this case is at rest, is also a
length which may be designated "the length of the rod."

In accordance with the principle of relativity the length to be discovered
by the operation (a)--we will call it "the length of the rod in the moving
system"--must be equal to the length l of the stationary rod.

The length to be discovered by the operation (b) we will call "the length of
the (moving) rod in the stationary system." This we shall determine on the
basis of our two principles, and we shall find that it differs from l.

Current kinematics tacitly assumes that the lengths determined by these two
operations are precisely equal, or in other words, that a moving rigid body
at the epoch t may in geometrical respects be perfectly represented by the
same body at rest in a definite position.

We imagine further that at the two ends A and B of the rod, clocks are
placed which synchronize with the clocks of the stationary system, that is
to say that their indications correspond at any instant to the "time of the
stationary system" at the places where they happen to be. These clocks are
therefore "synchronous in the stationary system."

We imagine further that with each clock there is a moving observer, and that
these observers apply to both clocks the criterion established in §1 for the
synchronization of two clocks. Let a ray of light depart from A at the time
tA, let it be reflected at B at the time tB, and reach A again at the time t'A.

Taking into consideration the principle of the constancy of the velocity of
light we find that

tB - tA = rAB/(c - v) and t'A - tB = rAB/(c + v)

where rAB denotes the length of the moving rod--measured in the stationary
system. Observers moving with the moving rod would thus find that the two
clocks were not synchronous, while observers in the stationary system would
declare the clocks to be synchronous.

So we see that we cannot attach any absolute signification to the concept of
simultaneity, but that two events which, viewed from a system of
coordinates, are simultaneous, can no longer be looked upon as simultaneous
events when envisaged from a system which is in motion relatively to that
system.


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